\C{lang} The NASM Language

\H{syntax} Layout of a NASM Source Line

Like most assemblers, each NASM source line contains (unless it
is a macro, a preprocessor directive or an assembler directive: see
\k{preproc} and \k{directive}) some combination of the four fields

\c label:    instruction operands        ; comment

As usual, most of these fields are optional; the presence or absence
of any combination of a label, an instruction and a \i{comment} is
allowed.  Of course, the operand field is either required or forbidden
by the presence and nature of the instruction field.

NASM uses backslash (\\) as the line continuation character; if a line
ends with backslash, the next line is considered to be a part of the
backslash-ended line.

NASM places no restrictions on white space within a line: labels may
have white space before them, or instructions may have no space
before them, or anything. The \i{colon} after a label is also
optional. (Note that this means that if you intend to code \c{lodsb}
alone on a line, and type \c{lodab} by accident, then that's still a
valid source line which does nothing but define a label. Running
NASM with the command-line option
\I{label-orphan}\c{-w+orphan-labels} will cause it to warn you if
you define a label alone on a line without a \i{trailing colon}.)

\i{Valid characters} in labels are letters, numbers, \c{_}, \c{$},
\c{#}, \c{@}, \c{~}, \c{.}, and \c{?}. The only characters which may
be used as the \e{first} character of an identifier are letters,
\c{.} (with special meaning: see \k{locallab}), \c{_} and \c{?}.
An identifier may also be prefixed with a \I{$, prefix}\c{$} to
indicate that it is intended to be read as an identifier and not a
reserved word; thus, if some other module you are linking with
defines a symbol called \c{eax}, you can refer to \c{$eax} in NASM
code to distinguish the symbol from the register. Maximum length of
an identifier is 4095 characters.

The instruction field may contain any machine instruction: Pentium and
P6 instructions, FPU instructions, MMX instructions and even
undocumented instructions are all supported. The instruction may be
prefixed by \c{LOCK}, \c{REP}, \c{REPE}/\c{REPZ}, \c{REPNE}/\c{REPNZ},
\c{XACQUIRE}/\c{XRELEASE} or \c{BND}/\c{NOBND}, in the usual
way. Explicit \I{address-size prefixes}address-size and
\i{operand-size prefixes} \i\c{A16}, \i\c{A32}, \i\c{A64}, \i\c{O16}
and \i\c{O32}, \i\c{O64} are provided - one example of their use is
given in \k{mixsize}. You can also use the name of a \I{segment
override}segment register as an instruction prefix: coding \c{es mov
[bx],ax} is equivalent to coding \c{mov [es:bx],ax}. We recommend the
latter syntax, since it is consistent with other syntactic features of
the language, but for instructions such as \c{LODSB}, which has no
operands and yet can require a segment override, there is no clean
syntactic way to proceed apart from \c{es lodsb}.

An instruction is not required to use a prefix: prefixes such as
\c{CS}, \c{A32}, \c{LOCK} or \c{REPE} can appear on a line by
themselves, and NASM will just generate the prefix bytes.

In addition to actual machine instructions, NASM also supports a
number of pseudo-instructions, described in \k{pseudop}.

Instruction \i{operands} may take a number of forms: they can be
registers, described simply by the register name (e.g. \c{ax},
\c{bp}, \c{ebx}, \c{cr0}: NASM does not use the \c{gas}-style
syntax in which register names must be prefixed by a \c{%} sign), or
they can be \i{effective addresses} (see \k{effaddr}), constants
(\k{const}) or expressions (\k{expr}).

For x87 \i{floating-point} instructions, NASM accepts a wide range of
syntaxes: you can use two-operand forms like MASM supports, or you
can use NASM's native single-operand forms in most cases.
\# Details of
\# all forms of each supported instruction are given in
\# \k{iref}.
For example, you can code:

\c         fadd    st1             ; this sets st0 := st0 + st1
\c         fadd    st0,st1         ; so does this
\c
\c         fadd    st1,st0         ; this sets st1 := st1 + st0
\c         fadd    to st1          ; so does this

Almost any x87 floating-point instruction that references memory must
use one of the prefixes \i\c{DWORD}, \i\c{QWORD} or \i\c{TWORD} to
indicate what size of \i{memory operand} it refers to.


\H{pseudop} \i{Pseudo-Instructions}

Pseudo-instructions are things which, though not real x86 machine
instructions, are used in the instruction field anyway because that's
the most convenient place to put them. The current pseudo-instructions
are \i\c{DB}, \i\c{DW}, \i\c{DD}, \i\c{DQ}, \i\c{DT}, \i\c{DO},
\i\c{DY} and \i\c\{DZ}; their \i{uninitialized} counterparts
\i\c{RESB}, \i\c{RESW}, \i\c{RESD}, \i\c{RESQ}, \i\c{REST},
\i\c{RESO}, \i\c{RESY} and \i\c\{RESZ}; the \i\c{INCBIN} command, the
\i\c{EQU} command, and the \i\c{TIMES} prefix.

In this documentation, the notation "\c{D}\e{x}" and "\c{RES}\e{x}" is
used to indicate all the \c{DB} and \c{RESB} type directives,
respectively.


\S{db} \c{D}\e{x}: Declaring Initialized Data

\i\c{DB}, \i\c{DW}, \i\c{DD}, \i\c{DQ}, \i\c{DT}, \i\c{DO}, \i\c{DY}
and \i\c{DZ} (collectively "\c{D}\e{x}" in this documentation) are used,
much as in MASM, to declare initialized data in the output file. They
can be invoked in a wide range of ways:
\I{floating-point constant}\I{character constant}\I{string constant}

\c       db    0x55                ; just the byte 0x55
\c       db    0x55,0x56,0x57      ; three bytes in succession
\c       db    'a',0x55            ; character constants are OK
\c       db    'hello',13,10,'$'   ; so are string constants
\c       dw    0x1234              ; 0x34 0x12
\c       dw    'a'                 ; 0x61 0x00 (it's just a number)
\c       dw    'ab'                ; 0x61 0x62 (character constant)
\c       dw    'abc'               ; 0x61 0x62 0x63 0x00 (string)
\c       dd    0x12345678          ; 0x78 0x56 0x34 0x12
\c       dd    1.234567e20         ; floating-point constant
\c       dq    0x123456789abcdef0  ; eight byte constant
\c       dq    1.234567e20         ; double-precision float
\c       dt    1.234567e20         ; extended-precision float

\c{DT}, \c{DO}, \c{DY} and \c{DZ} do not accept integer
\i{numeric constants} as operands.

\I{masmdb} Starting in NASM 2.15, a the following \i{MASM}-like features
have been implemented:

\b A \I{?db}\c{?} argument to declare \i{uninitialized} storage:

\c       db    ?                   ; uninitialized

\b A superset of the \i\c{DUP} syntax. The NASM version of this has
the following syntax specification; capital letters indicate literal
keywords:

\c      dx      := DB | DW | DD | DQ | DT | DO | DY | DZ
\c      type    := BYTE | WORD | DWORD | QWORD | TWORD | OWORD | YWORD | ZWORD
\c      atom    := expression | string | float | '?'
\c      parlist := '(' value [',' value ...] ')'
\c      duplist := expression DUP [type] ['%'] parlist
\c      list    := duplist | '%' parlist | type ['%'] parlist
\c      value   := [type] atom | list
\c
\c      stmt    := dx value [',' value ...]

\> Note that a \e{list} needs to be prefixed with a \I{%db}\c{%} sign unless
prefixed by either \c{DUP} or a \e{type} in order to avoid confusing it with
a parenthesis starting an expression. The following expressions are all
valid:

\c        db 33
\c        db (44)		; Integer expression
\c      ; db (44,55)		; Invalid - error
\c        db %(44,55)
\c        db %('XX','YY')
\c        db ('AA')		; Integer expression - outputs single byte
\c        db %('BB')		; List, containing a string
\c        db ?
\c        db 6 dup (33)
\c        db 6 dup (33, 34)
\c        db 6 dup (33, 34), 35
\c        db 7 dup (99)
\c        db 7 dup dword (?, word ?, ?)
\c        dw byte (?,44)
\c        dw 3 dup (0xcc, 4 dup byte ('PQR'), ?), 0xabcd
\c        dd 16 dup (0xaaaa, ?, 0xbbbbbb)
\c        dd 64 dup (?)

\I{baddb} The use of \c{$} (current address) in a \c{D}\e{x} statement is
undefined in the current version of NASM, \e{except in the following
cases}:

\b For the first expression in the statement, either a \c{DUP} or a data
item.

\b An expression of the form "\e{value}\c{ - $}", which is converted
to a self-relative relocation.

Future versions of NASM is likely to produce a different result or
issue an error this case.

There is no such restriction on using \c{$$} or section-relative
symbols.

\S{resb} \c{RESB} and Friends: Declaring \i{Uninitialized} Data

\i\c{RESB}, \i\c{RESW}, \i\c{RESD}, \i\c{RESQ}, \i\c{REST},
\i\c{RESO}, \i\c{RESY} and \i\c\{RESZ} are designed to be used in the
BSS section of a module: they declare \e{uninitialized} storage
space. Each takes a single operand, which is the number of bytes,
words, doublewords or whatever to reserve. The operand to a
\c{RESB}-type pseudo-instruction \e{would} be a \i\e{critical
expression} (see \k{crit}), except that for legacy compatibility
reasons forward references are permitted, however \e{the code will be
extremely fragile and this should be considered a severe programming
error.} A warning will be issued; code generating this warning should
be remedied as quickly as possible (see the \c{forward} class in
\k{warnings}.)

For example:

\c buffer:         resb    64              ; reserve 64 bytes
\c wordvar:        resw    1               ; reserve a word
\c realarray       resq    10              ; array of ten reals
\c ymmval:         resy    1               ; one YMM register
\c zmmvals:        resz    32              ; 32 ZMM registers

\I{masmdb} Since NASM 2.15, the MASM syntax of using \I{?db}\c{?}
and \i\c{DUP} in the \c{D}\e{x} directives is also supported. Thus,
the above example could also be written:

\c buffer:         db      64 dup (?)      ; reserve 64 bytes
\c wordvar:        dw      ?               ; reserve a word
\c realarray       dq      10 dup (?)      ; array of ten reals
\c ymmval:         dy      ?               ; one YMM register
\c zmmvals:        dz      32 dup (?)      ; 32 ZMM registers


\S{incbin} \i\c{INCBIN}: Including External \i{Binary Files}

\c{INCBIN} includes binary file data verbatim into the output
file. This can be handy for (for example) including \i{graphics} and
\i{sound} data directly into a game executable file. It can be called
in one of these three ways:

\c     incbin  "file.dat"             ; include the whole file
\c     incbin  "file.dat",1024        ; skip the first 1024 bytes
\c     incbin  "file.dat",1024,512    ; skip the first 1024, and
\c                                    ; actually include at most 512

\c{INCBIN} is both a directive and a standard macro; the standard
macro version searches for the file in the include file search path
and adds the file to the dependency lists.  This macro can be
overridden if desired.


\S{equ} \i\c{EQU}: Defining Constants

\c{EQU} defines a symbol to a given constant value: when \c{EQU} is
used, the source line must contain a label. The action of \c{EQU} is
to define the given label name to the value of its (only) operand.
This definition is absolute, and cannot change later. So, for
example,

\c message         db      'hello, world'
\c msglen          equ     $-message

defines \c{msglen} to be the constant 12. \c{msglen} may not then be
redefined later. This is not a \i{preprocessor} definition either:
the value of \c{msglen} is evaluated \e{once}, using the value of
\c{$} (see \k{expr} for an explanation of \c{$}) at the point of
definition, rather than being evaluated wherever it is referenced
and using the value of \c{$} at the point of reference.


\S{times} \i\c{TIMES}: \i{Repeating} Instructions or Data

The \c{TIMES} prefix causes the instruction to be assembled multiple
times. This is partly present as NASM's equivalent of the \i\c{DUP}
syntax supported by \i{MASM}-compatible assemblers, in that you can
code

\c zerobuf:        times 64 db 0

or similar things; but \c{TIMES} is more versatile than that. The
argument to \c{TIMES} is not just a numeric constant, but a numeric
\e{expression}, so you can do things like

\c buffer: db      'hello, world'
\c         times 64-$+buffer db ' '

which will store exactly enough spaces to make the total length of
\c{buffer} up to 64. Finally, \c{TIMES} can be applied to ordinary
instructions, so you can code trivial \i{unrolled loops} in it:

\c         times 100 movsb

Note that there is no effective difference between \c{times 100 resb
1} and \c{resb 100}, except that the latter will be assembled about
100 times faster due to the internal structure of the assembler.

The operand to \c{TIMES} is a critical expression (\k{crit}).

Note also that \c{TIMES} can't be applied to \i{macros}: the reason
for this is that \c{TIMES} is processed after the macro phase, which
allows the argument to \c{TIMES} to contain expressions such as
\c{64-$+buffer} as above. To repeat more than one line of code, or a
complex macro, use the preprocessor \i\c{%rep} directive.


\H{effaddr} Effective Addresses

An \i{effective address} is any operand to an instruction which
\I{memory reference}references memory. Effective addresses, in NASM,
have a very simple syntax: they consist of an expression evaluating
to the desired address, enclosed in \i{square brackets}. For
example:

\c wordvar dw      123
\c         mov     ax,[wordvar]
\c         mov     ax,[wordvar+1]
\c         mov     ax,[es:wordvar+bx]

Anything not conforming to this simple system is not a valid memory
reference in NASM, for example \c{es:wordvar[bx]}.

More complicated effective addresses, such as those involving more
than one register, work in exactly the same way:

\c         mov     eax,[ebx*2+ecx+offset]
\c         mov     ax,[bp+di+8]

NASM is capable of doing \i{algebra} on these effective addresses,
so that things which don't necessarily \e{look} legal are perfectly
all right:

\c     mov     eax,[ebx*5]             ; assembles as [ebx*4+ebx]
\c     mov     eax,[label1*2-label2]   ; ie [label1+(label1-label2)]

Some forms of effective address have more than one assembled form;
in most such cases NASM will generate the smallest form it can. For
example, there are distinct assembled forms for the 32-bit effective
addresses \c{[eax*2+0]} and \c{[eax+eax]}, and NASM will generally
generate the latter on the grounds that the former requires four
bytes to store a zero offset.

NASM has a hinting mechanism which will cause \c{[eax+ebx]} and
\c{[ebx+eax]} to generate different opcodes; this is occasionally
useful because \c{[esi+ebp]} and \c{[ebp+esi]} have different
default segment registers.

However, you can force NASM to generate an effective address in a
particular form by the use of the keywords \c{BYTE}, \c{WORD},
\c{DWORD} and \c{NOSPLIT}. If you need \c{[eax+3]} to be assembled
using a double-word offset field instead of the one byte NASM will
normally generate, you can code \c{[dword eax+3]}. Similarly, you
can force NASM to use a byte offset for a small value which it
hasn't seen on the first pass (see \k{crit} for an example of such a
code fragment) by using \c{[byte eax+offset]}. As special cases,
\c{[byte eax]} will code \c{[eax+0]} with a byte offset of zero, and
\c{[dword eax]} will code it with a double-word offset of zero. The
normal form, \c{[eax]}, will be coded with no offset field.

The form described in the previous paragraph is also useful if you
are trying to access data in a 32-bit segment from within 16 bit code.
For more information on this see the section on mixed-size addressing
(\k{mixaddr}). In particular, if you need to access data with a known
offset that is larger than will fit in a 16-bit value, if you don't
specify that it is a dword offset, nasm will cause the high word of
the offset to be lost.

Similarly, NASM will split \c{[eax*2]} into \c{[eax+eax]} because
that allows the offset field to be absent and space to be saved; in
fact, it will also split \c{[eax*2+offset]} into
\c{[eax+eax+offset]}. You can combat this behaviour by the use of
the \c{NOSPLIT} keyword: \c{[nosplit eax*2]} will force
\c{[eax*2+0]} to be generated literally. \c{[nosplit eax*1]} also has the
same effect. In another way, a split EA form \c{[0, eax*2]} can be used, too.
However, \c{NOSPLIT} in \c{[nosplit eax+eax]} will be ignored because user's
intention here is considered as \c{[eax+eax]}.

In 64-bit mode, NASM will by default generate absolute addresses.  The
\i\c{REL} keyword makes it produce \c{RIP}-relative addresses. Since
this is frequently the normally desired behaviour, see the \c{DEFAULT}
directive (\k{default}). The keyword \i\c{ABS} overrides \i\c{REL}.

A new syntax for split EA (effective addressing) is also supported in NASM. It's
mainly intended for MPX instructions that use the MIB operands, but it can be
used for any memory reference. It's described in more detail in \k{spliteas}.

When broadcasting decorator is used, the opsize keyword should match
the size of each element.

\c      VDIVPS zmm4, zmm5, dword [rbx]{1to16}   ; single-precision float
\c      VDIVPS zmm4, zmm5, zword [rbx]          ; packed 512 bit memory


\H{const} \i{Constants}

NASM understands four different types of constant: numeric,
character, string and floating-point.


\S{numconst} \i{Numeric Constants}

A numeric constant is simply a number. NASM allows you to specify
numbers in a variety of number bases, in a variety of ways: you can
suffix \c{H} or \c{X}, \c{D} or \c{T}, \c{Q} or \c{O}, and \c{B} or
\c{Y} for \i{hexadecimal}, \i{decimal}, \i{octal} and \i{binary}
respectively, or you can prefix \c{0h} or \c{0x}, \c{0d} or \c{0t},
\c{0q} or \c{0o}, and \c{0b} or \c{0y}) in the style of C.  Please note
that unlike C, a \c{0} prefix by itself does \e{not} imply an octal
constant (this is deprecated in C23.)

Previous versions of NASM allowed prefixing \c{$} for hexadecimal in
the style of Borland Pascal or Motorola Assemblers.  Unfortunately
though, the \I{$, prefix}\c{$} prefix does double duty as a prefix on
identifiers (see \k{syntax}), so a hex number prefixed with a \c{$}
sign would have to have a digit after the \c{$} rather than a letter,
which is \e{not} what users would typically expect. This syntax is
strongly deprecated, and can be disabled entirely with the
\c{[DOLLARHEX]} directive, see \k{dollarhex}.

Numeric constants can have underscores (\c{_}) interspersed to break
up long strings.

Some examples (all producing exactly the same code):

\c         mov     ax,200          ; decimal
\c         mov     ax,0200         ; still decimal
\c         mov     ax,0200d        ; explicitly decimal
\c         mov     ax,0d200        ; also decimal
\c         mov     ax,0c8h         ; hex
\c         mov     ax,0xc8         ; hex yet again
\c         mov     ax,0hc8         ; still hex
\c         mov     ax,310q         ; octal
\c         mov     ax,310o         ; octal again
\c         mov     ax,0o310        ; octal yet again
\c         mov     ax,0q310        ; octal yet again
\c         mov     ax,11001000b    ; binary
\c         mov     ax,1100_1000b   ; same binary constant
\c         mov     ax,1100_1000y   ; same binary constant once more
\c         mov     ax,0b1100_1000  ; same binary constant yet again
\c         mov     ax,0y1100_1000  ; same binary constant yet again
\c
\c         ; Deprecated syntax:
\c         mov     ax,$0c8         ; hex again: the 0 is required

\S{strings} \I{string}\I{string constants}\i{Character Strings}

A character string consists of up to eight characters enclosed in
either single quotes (\c{'...'}), double quotes (\c{"..."}) or
backquotes (\c{`...`}).  Single or double quotes are equivalent in
NASM (except of course that surrounding the constant with single
quotes allows double quotes to appear within it and vice versa); the
contents of those are represented verbatim.  Strings enclosed in
backquotes support C-style \c{\\}-escapes for special characters.


The following \i{escape sequences} are recognized by backquoted strings:

\c       \'          single quote (')
\c       \"          double quote (")
\c       \`          backquote (`)
\c       \\\          backslash (\)
\c       \?          question mark (?)
\c       \a          BEL (ASCII 7)
\c       \b          BS  (ASCII 8)
\c       \t          TAB (ASCII 9)
\c       \n          LF  (ASCII 10)
\c       \v          VT  (ASCII 11)
\c       \f          FF  (ASCII 12)
\c       \r          CR  (ASCII 13)
\c       \e          ESC (ASCII 27)
\c       \377        Up to 3 octal digits - literal byte
\c       \xFF        Up to 2 hexadecimal digits - literal byte
\c       \u1234      4 hexadecimal digits - Unicode character
\c       \U12345678  8 hexadecimal digits - Unicode character

All other escape sequences are reserved.  Note that \c{\\0}, meaning a
\c{NUL} character (ASCII 0), is a special case of the octal escape
sequence.

\i{Unicode} characters specified with \c{\\u} or \c{\\U} are converted to
\i{UTF-8}.  For example, the following lines are all equivalent:

\c       db `\u263a`            ; UTF-8 smiley face
\c       db `\xe2\x98\xba`      ; UTF-8 smiley face
\c       db 0E2h, 098h, 0BAh    ; UTF-8 smiley face


\S{chrconst} \i{Character Constants}

A character constant consists of a string up to eight bytes long, used
in an expression context.  It is treated as if it was an integer.

A character constant with more than one byte will be arranged
with \i{little-endian} order in mind: if you code

\c           mov eax,'abcd'

then the constant generated is not \c{0x61626364}, but
\c{0x64636261}, so that if you were then to store the value into
memory, it would read \c{abcd} rather than \c{dcba}. This is also
the sense of character constants understood by the Pentium's
\i\c{CPUID} instruction.


\S{strconst} \i{String Constants}

String constants are character strings used in the context of some
pseudo-instructions, namely the
\I\c{DW}\I\c{DD}\I\c{DQ}\I\c{DT}\I\c{DO}\I\c{DY}\i\c{DB} family and
\i\c{INCBIN} (where it represents a filename). They are also used in
certain preprocessor directives.

A string constant looks like a character constant, only longer. It
is treated as a concatenation of maximum-size character constants
for the conditions. So the following are equivalent:

\c       db    'hello'               ; string constant
\c       db    'h','e','l','l','o'   ; equivalent character constants

And the following are also equivalent:

\c       dd    'ninechars'           ; doubleword string constant
\c       dd    'nine','char','s'     ; becomes three doublewords
\c       db    'ninechars',0,0,0     ; and really looks like this

Note that when used in a string-supporting context, quoted strings are
treated as a string constants even if they are short enough to be a
character constant, because otherwise \c{db 'ab'} would have the same
effect as \c{db 'a'}, which would be silly. Similarly, three-character
or four-character constants are treated as strings when they are
operands to \c{DW}, and so forth.

\S{unicode} \I{UTF-8}\I{UTF-16}\I{UTF-32}\i{Unicode} Strings

The special operators \i\c{__?utf16?__}, \i\c{__?utf16le?__},
\i\c{__?utf16be?__}, \i\c{__?utf32?__}, \i\c{__?utf32le?__} and
\i\c{__?utf32be?__} allows definition of Unicode strings.  They take a
string in UTF-8 format and converts it to UTF-16 or UTF-32,
respectively.  Unless the \c{be} forms are specified, the output is
little endian.

For example:

\c %define u(x) __?utf16?__(x)
\c %define w(x) __?utf32?__(x)
\c
\c       dw u('C:\WINDOWS'), 0       ; Pathname in UTF-16
\c       dd w(`A + B = \u206a`), 0   ; String in UTF-32

The UTF operators can be applied either to strings passed to the
\c{DB} family instructions, or to character constants in an expression
context.

\S{fltconst} \i{Floating-Point Constants}

\i{Floating-point} constants are acceptable only as arguments to
\i\c{DB}, \i\c{DW}, \i\c{DD}, \i\c{DQ}, \i\c{DT}, and \i\c{DO}, or as
arguments to the special operators \i\c{__?float8?__},
\i\c{__?float16?__}, \i\c{__?bfloat16?__}, \i\c{__?float32?__},
\i\c{__?float64?__}, \i\c{__?float80m?__}, \i\c{__?float80e?__},
\i\c{__?float128l?__}, and \i\c{__?float128h?__}. See also \k{pkg_fp}.

Floating-point constants are expressed in the traditional form:
digits, then a period, then optionally more digits, then optionally an
\c{E} followed by an exponent. The period is mandatory, so that NASM
can distinguish between \c{dd 1}, which declares an integer constant,
and \c{dd 1.0} which declares a floating-point constant.

NASM also support C99-style hexadecimal floating-point: \c{0x},
hexadecimal digits, period, optionally more hexadeximal digits, then
optionally a \c{P} followed by a \e{binary} (not hexadecimal) exponent
in decimal notation.  As an extension, NASM additionally supports the
\c{0h} and \c{$} prefixes for hexadecimal, as well binary and octal
floating-point, using the \c{0b} or \c{0y} and \c{0o} or \c{0q}
prefixes, respectively. As with integers, the \c{$} prefix for
hexadecimal is deprecated.

Underscores to break up groups of digits are permitted in
floating-point constants as well.

Some examples:

\c       db    -0.2                    ; "Quarter precision"
\c       dw    -0.5                    ; IEEE 754r/SSE5 half precision
\c       dd    1.2                     ; an easy one
\c       dd    1.222_222_222           ; underscores are permitted
\c       dd    0x1p+2                  ; 1.0x2^2 = 4.0
\c       dq    0x1p+32                 ; 1.0x2^32 = 4 294 967 296.0
\c       dq    1.e10                   ; 10 000 000 000.0
\c       dq    1.e+10                  ; synonymous with 1.e10
\c       dq    1.e-10                  ; 0.000 000 000 1
\c       dt    3.141592653589793238462 ; pi
\c       do    1.e+4000                ; IEEE 754r quad precision

The 8-bit "quarter-precision" floating-point format is
sign:exponent:mantissa = 1:4:3 with an exponent bias of 7.  This
appears to be the most frequently used 8-bit floating-point format,
although it is not covered by any formal standard.  This is sometimes
called a "\i{minifloat}."

The \i\c{bfloat16} format is effectively a compressed version of the
32-bit single precision format, with a reduced mantissa. It is
effectively the same as truncating the 32-bit format to the upper 16
bits, except for rounding. There is no \c{D}\e{x} directive that
corresponds to \c{bfloat16} as it obviously has the same size as the
IEEE standard 16-bit half precision format, see however \k{pkg_fp}.

The special operators are used to produce floating-point numbers in
other contexts.  They produce the binary representation of a specific
floating-point number as an integer, and can use anywhere integer
constants are used in an expression.  \c{__?float80m?__} and
\c{__?float80e?__} produce the 64-bit mantissa and 16-bit exponent of an
80-bit floating-point number, and \c{__?float128l?__} and
\c{__?float128h?__} produce the lower and upper 64-bit halves of a 128-bit
floating-point number, respectively.

For example:

\c       mov    rax,__?float64?__(3.141592653589793238462)

... would assign the binary representation of pi as a 64-bit floating
point number into \c{RAX}.  This is exactly equivalent to:

\c       mov    rax,0x400921fb54442d18

NASM cannot do compile-time arithmetic on floating-point constants.
This is because NASM is designed to be portable - although it always
generates code to run on x86 processors, the assembler itself can
run on any system with an ANSI C compiler. Therefore, the assembler
cannot guarantee the presence of a floating-point unit capable of
handling the \i{Intel number formats}, and so for NASM to be able to
do floating arithmetic it would have to include its own complete set
of floating-point routines, which would significantly increase the
size of the assembler for very little benefit.

The special tokens \i\c{__?Infinity?__}, \i\c{__?QNaN?__} (or
\i\c{__?NaN?__}) and \i\c{__?SNaN?__} can be used to generate
\I{infinity}infinities, quiet \i{NaN}s, and signalling NaNs,
respectively.  These are normally used as macros:

\c %define Inf __?Infinity?__
\c %define NaN __?QNaN?__
\c
\c       dq    +1.5, -Inf, NaN         ; Double-precision constants

The \c{%use fp} standard macro package contains a set of convenience
macros.  See \k{pkg_fp}.

\S{bcdconst} \I{floating-point, packed BCD constants}Packed BCD Constants

x87-style packed BCD constants can be used in the same contexts as
80-bit floating-point numbers.  They are suffixed with \c{p} or
prefixed with \c{0p}, and can include up to 18 decimal digits.

As with other numeric constants, underscores can be used to separate
digits.

For example:

\c       dt 12_345_678_901_245_678p
\c       dt -12_345_678_901_245_678p
\c       dt +0p33
\c       dt 33p


\H{expr} \i{Expressions}

Expressions in NASM are similar in syntax to those in C.  Expressions
are evaluated as 64-bit integers which are then adjusted to the
appropriate size.

NASM supports two special tokens in expressions, allowing
calculations to involve the current assembly position: the
\I{$, here}\c{$} and \i\c{$$} tokens. \c{$} evaluates to the assembly
position at the beginning of the line containing the expression; so
you can code an \i{infinite loop} using \c{JMP $}. \c{$$} evaluates
to the beginning of the current section; so you can tell how far
into the section you are by using \c{($-$$)}.

The arithmetic \i{operators} provided by NASM are listed here, in
increasing order of \i{precedence}.

A \e{boolean} value is true if nonzero and false if zero. The
operators which return a boolean value always return 1 for true and 0
for false.


\S{exptri} \I{?op}\c{?} ... \c{:}: Conditional Operator

The syntax of this operator, similar to the C conditional operator, is:

\e{boolean} \c{?} \e{trueval} \c{:} \e{falseval}

This operator evaluates to \e{trueval} if \e{boolean} is true,
otherwise to \e{falseval}.

Note that NASM allows \c{?} characters in symbol names. Therefore, it
is highly advisable to always put spaces around the \c{?} and \c{:}
characters.


\S{expbor}: \i\c{||}: \i{Boolean OR} Operator

The \c{||} operator gives a boolean OR: it evaluates to 1 if both sides of
the expression are nonzero, otherwise 0.


\S{expbxor}: \i\c{^^}: \i{Boolean XOR} Operator

The \c{^^} operator gives a boolean XOR: it evaluates to 1 if any one side of
the expression is nonzero, otherwise 0.


\S{expband}: \i\c{&&}: \i{Boolean AND} Operator

The \c{&&} operator gives a boolean AND: it evaluates to 1 if both sides of
the expression is nonzero, otherwise 0.


\S{exprel}: \i{Comparison Operators}

NASM supports the following comparison operators:

\b \i\c{=} or \i\c{==} compare for equality.

\b \i\c{!=} or \i\c{<>} compare for inequality.

\b \i\c{<} compares signed less than.

\b \i\c{<=} compares signed less than or equal.

\b \i\c{>} compares signed greater than.

\b \i\c{>=} compares signed greater than or equal.

These operators evaluate to 0 for false or 1 for true.

\b \i{<=>} does a signed comparison, and evaluates to -1 for less
than, 0 for equal, and 1 for greater than.

At this time, NASM does not provide unsigned comparison operators.


\S{expor} \i\c{|}: \i{Bitwise OR} Operator

The \c{|} operator gives a bitwise OR, exactly as performed by the
\c{OR} machine instruction.


\S{expxor} \i\c{^}: \i{Bitwise XOR} Operator

\c{^} provides the bitwise XOR operation.


\S{expand} \i\c{&}: \i{Bitwise AND} Operator

\c{&} provides the bitwise AND operation.


\S{expshift} \i{Bit Shift} Operators

\i\c{<<} gives a bit-shift to the left, just as it does in C. So
\c{5<<3} evaluates to 5 times 8, or 40. \i\c{>>} gives an \I{unsigned,
bit shift}\e{unsigned} (logical) bit-shift to the right; the bits
shifted in from the left are set to zero.

\i\c{<<<} gives a bit-shift to the left, exactly equivalent to the
\c{<<} operator; it is included for completeness. \i\c{>>>} gives an
\I{signed, bit shift}\e{signed} (arithmetic) bit-shift to the right;
the bits shifted in from the left are filled with copies of the most
significant (sign) bit.


\S{expplmi} \I{+ opaddition}\c{+} and \I{- opsubtraction}\c{-}:
\i{Addition} and \i{Subtraction} Operators

The \c{+} and \c{-} operators do perfectly ordinary addition and
subtraction.


\S{expmul} \i{Multiplication}, \i{Division} and \i{Modulo}

\i\c{*} is the multiplication operator.

\i\c{/} and \i\c{//} are both division operators: \c{/} is
\I{division, unsigned}\I{unsigned, division}unsigned division and \c{//} is
\I{division, signed}\I{signed, division}signed division.

Similarly, \i\c{%} and \i\c{%%} provide \I{modulo,
unsigned}\I{unsigned, modulo}unsigned and \I{modulo, signed}\I{signed,
modulo}signed modulo operators respectively.

Since the \c{%} character is used extensively by the macro
\i{preprocessor}, you should ensure that both the signed and unsigned
modulo operators are followed by white space wherever they appear.

NASM, like ANSI C, provides no guarantees about the sensible
operation of the signed modulo operator. On most systems it will match
the signed division operator, such that:

\c      b * (a // b) + (a %% b) = a       (b != 0)


\S{expmul} \I{operators, unary}\i{Unary Operators}

The highest-priority operators in NASM's expression grammar are those
which only apply to one argument.  These are:

\b \I{- opunary}\c{-} \I{arithmetic negation}negates (\i{2's complement}) its
operand.

\b \I{+ opunary}\c{+} does nothing; it's provided for symmetry with \c{-}.

\b \I{~ opunary}\c{~} computes the \I{negation, bitwise}\i{bitwise
negation} (\i{1's complement}) of its operand.

\b \I{! opunary}\c{!} is the \I{negation, boolean}\i{boolean negation}
operator. It evaluates to 1 if the argument is 0, otherwise 0.

\b \c{SEG} provides the \i{segment address} of its operand (explained in
more detail in \k{segwrt}).

\b A set of additional operators with leading and trailing double
underscores are used to implement the \c{integer functions} of the
\c{ifunc} macro package, see \k{pkg_ifunc}.


\H{segwrt} \i\c{SEG} and \i\c{WRT}

When writing large 16-bit programs, which must be split into
multiple \i{segments}, it is often necessary to be able to refer to
the \I{segment address}segment part of the address of a symbol. NASM
supports the \c{SEG} operator to perform this function.

The \c{SEG} operator evaluates to the \i\e{preferred} segment base of a
symbol, defined as the segment base relative to which the offset of
the symbol makes sense. So the code

\c         mov     ax,seg symbol
\c         mov     es,ax
\c         mov     bx,symbol

will load \c{ES:BX} with a valid pointer to the symbol \c{symbol}.

Things can be more complex than this: since 16-bit segments and
\i{groups} may \I{overlapping segments}overlap, you might occasionally
want to refer to some symbol using a different segment base from the
preferred one. NASM lets you do this, by the use of the \c{WRT}
(With Reference To) keyword. So you can do things like

\c         mov     ax,weird_seg        ; weird_seg is a segment base
\c         mov     es,ax
\c         mov     bx,symbol wrt weird_seg

to load \c{ES:BX} with a different, but functionally equivalent,
pointer to the symbol \c{symbol}.

The \c{WRT} keyword is also used in far (inter-segment) calls and jumps. It's
synonymous to the

\c	call far procedure

syntax which is documented in \k{farcall}.

\H{strict} \i\c{STRICT}: Inhibiting Optimization

When assembling with the optimizer set to level 2 or higher (see
\k{opt-O}), NASM will use size specifiers (\c{BYTE}, \c{WORD},
\c{DWORD}, \c{QWORD}, \c{TWORD}, \c{OWORD}, \c{YWORD} or \c{ZWORD}),
but will give them the smallest possible size. The keyword \c{STRICT}
can be used to inhibit optimization and force a particular operand to
be emitted in the specified size. For example, with the optimizer on,
and in \c{BITS 16} mode,

\c         push dword 33

is encoded in three bytes \c{66 6A 21}, whereas

\c         push strict dword 33

is encoded in six bytes, with a full dword immediate operand \c{66 68
21 00 00 00}.

With the optimizer off, the same code (six bytes) is generated whether
the \c{STRICT} keyword was used or not.


\H{crit} \i{Critical Expressions}

Although NASM has an optional multi-pass optimizer, there are some
expressions which must be resolvable on the first pass. These are
called \e{Critical Expressions}.

The first pass is used to determine the size of all the assembled
code and data, so that the second pass, when generating all the
code, knows all the symbol addresses the code refers to. So one
thing NASM can't handle is code whose size depends on the value of a
symbol declared after the code in question. For example,

\c         times (label-$) db 0
\c label:  db      'Where am I?'

The argument to \i\c{TIMES} in this case could equally legally
evaluate to anything at all; NASM will reject this example because
it cannot tell the size of the \c{TIMES} line when it first sees it.
It will just as firmly reject the slightly \I{paradox}paradoxical
code

\c         times (label-$+1) db 0
\c label:  db      'NOW where am I?'

in which \e{any} value for the \c{TIMES} argument is by definition
wrong!

NASM rejects these examples by means of a concept called a
\e{critical expression}, which is defined to be an expression whose
value is required to be computable in the first pass, and which must
therefore depend only on symbols defined before it. The argument to
the \c{TIMES} prefix is a critical expression.

\H{locallab} \i{Local Labels}

NASM gives special treatment to symbols beginning with a \i{period}.
A label beginning with a single period is treated as a \e{local}
label, which means that it is associated with the previous non-local
label. So, for example:

\c label1  ; some code
\c
\c .loop
\c         ; some more code
\c
\c         jne     .loop
\c         ret
\c
\c label2  ; some code
\c
\c .loop
\c         ; some more code
\c
\c         jne     .loop
\c         ret

In the above code fragment, each \c{JNE} instruction jumps to the
line immediately before it, because the two definitions of \c{.loop}
are kept separate by virtue of each being associated with the
previous non-local label.

This form of local label handling is borrowed from the old Amiga
assembler \i{DevPac}; however, NASM goes one step further, in
allowing access to local labels from other parts of the code. This
is achieved by means of \e{defining} a local label in terms of the
previous non-local label: the first definition of \c{.loop} above is
really defining a symbol called \c{label1.loop}, and the second
defines a symbol called \c{label2.loop}. So, if you really needed
to, you could write

\c label3  ; some more code
\c         ; and some more
\c
\c         jmp label1.loop

Sometimes it is useful - in a macro, for instance - to be able to
define a label which can be referenced from anywhere but which
doesn't interfere with the normal local-label mechanism. Such a
label can't be non-local because it would interfere with subsequent
definitions of, and references to, local labels; and it can't be
local because the macro that defined it wouldn't know the label's
full name. NASM therefore introduces a third type of label, which is
probably only useful in macro definitions: if a label begins with
the \I{label prefix}special prefix \i\c{..@}, then it does nothing
to the local label mechanism. So you could code

\c label1:                         ; a non-local label
\c .local:                         ; this is really label1.local
\c ..@foo:                         ; this is a special symbol
\c label2:                         ; another non-local label
\c .local:                         ; this is really label2.local
\c
\c         jmp     ..@foo          ; this will jump three lines up

NASM has the capacity to define other special symbols beginning with
a double period: for example, \c{..start} is used to specify the
entry point in the \c{obj} output format (see \k{dotdotstart}),
\c{..imagebase} is used to find out the offset from a base address
of the current image in the \c{win64} output format (see \k{win64pic}).
So just keep in mind that symbols beginning with a double period are
special.
